Elections in the United States

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The United States is a federal country, with elected officials at federal (national), state and local level. On a national level, the head of state, the President, is elected indirectly, by electors of an electoral college. In modern times, the electors virtually always vote with the popular vote of their state. All members of the federal legislature, Congress, are directly elected. There are many elected offices at state level, each state having an elected governor and elected legislature, and other elected positions. There are also elected offices at local level, in counties and cities. It is estimated that across the whole country, over one million elected offices are filled in every electoral cycle.

The regulation of elections is specified both by both federal and state law. The United States Constitution defines (to a basic extent) how federal elections are held, in Article One and Article Two and various amendments. State law regulates most aspects of electoral law, including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state's electoral college, and the running of state and local elections. The financing of elections has always been controversial, due to the fact that private sources of finance make up substantial amounts of campaign contributions, especially in federal elections. Voluntary public funding for candidates willing to accept spending limits was introduced in 1974 for presidential primaries and elections. The Federal Elections Commission, created in 1975 by the 1974 amendment of the Federal Election Campaign Act (1971) has the responsibility to disclose campaign finance information, to enforce the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and to oversee the public funding of U.S. presidential elections. The federal government has also been involved in attempts to increase voter turnout, by measures such as the National Voter Registration Act of 1993.

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Voting

Eligibility

The eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the constitution and also regulated at state level. The voter must be a citizen of the United States. The constitution states that suffrage cannot be denied on grounds of race or color (Fifteenth Amendment), sex (Nineteenth Amendment) or age for citizens eighteen years or older (Twenty-sixth Amendment). Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of statutes of state legislatures to regulate voter eligibility. Some states debar convicted criminals, especially felons, from voting for a fixed period of time or indefinitely.

Voter registration

Registering to vote is the responsibility of individuals in the United States, since voters are not automatically registered to vote once they reach the age of 18. Every state requires their citizens to register to vote, except North Dakota. Some states allow citizens to register to vote on the same day of the election, see below. Traditionally, voters had to register at state offices to vote, but in the mid-1990s efforts were made by the federal government to make registering easier, in an attempt to increase turnout. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993, commonly known as "Motor Voter", forced state governments to make the voter registration process easier by providing uniform registration services through drivers' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail-in registration. Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Wyoming and North Dakota are exempt. This because in these states (except North Dakota, where no registration is required) same-day registration has been adopted, allowing voters to register to vote on the day of the election.

Absentee voting

Voting also occur through absentee ballots. According to the federal government, "Generally, all U.S. citizens 18 years or older who are or will be residing outside the United States during an election period are eligible to vote absentee in any election for Federal office. In addition, all members of the Uniformed Services, their family members and members of the Merchant Marine and their family members, who are U.S. citizens, may vote absentee in Federal, state and local elections." [1]. In addition to this, 31 states, with 54% of the US population allow early voting for any voter. [2]. This allows individuals to vote in person or by absentee ballot before election day, for no special reason.

An absentee ballot paper for Milton, New Hampshire. This ballot paper gives the voter the option to write-in a candidate and use straight ticket voting. This ballot also contains a referendum placed on the ballot by the state legislature.
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An absentee ballot paper for Milton, New Hampshire. This ballot paper gives the voter the option to write-in a candidate and use straight ticket voting. This ballot also contains a referendum placed on the ballot by the state legislature.

Ballots

Ballots for elections are produced by states. In some states for some elected offices, voters may write-in a candidate's name, to vote for a candidate whose name does not appear on the ballot paper. It is also possible in some states to use "straight ticket voting", which means the voter may vote for one party for all the elected positions on the ballot paper by completing one box. In states that allow them, ballot propositions and referendums will appear on ballots.

Levels of election

Federal elections

The United States has a Presidential system of government, which means that the executive and legislature are elected separately. Article One of the United States Constitution requires that any election for the U.S. President must occur on a single day throughout the country; elections for Congressional offices, however, can be held at different times. See Election Day (United States). Congressional and Presidential election elections take place simultaneously every four years, and the intervening Congressional election, which take place every two years are called Midterm elections.

The constitution states that members of the House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. The President must be at least 35 years old, a natural born citizen of the United States and a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years. It is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate the qualifications for a candidate appearing on a ballot paper. "Getting on the ballot" is based on candidate's performances in previous elections.

Presidential elections

See also U.S. presidential election, U.S. Electoral College (detail on the college, history and criticized)

The President and the Vice President are elected together in a Presidential election. The election is indirect, the winner being determined by votes cast by electors of the U.S. Electoral College. In modern times, voters in each state select a slate of electors from a list of several slates designated by different parties or candidates, and the electors typically promise in advance to vote for the candidates of their party (whose names usually appear on the ballot rather than those of the individual electors). The winner of the election is the candidate with at least 270 Electoral College votes. It is possible for a candidate to win the electoral vote, and lose the (nationwide) popular vote (receive fewer votes nationwide than the second ranked candidate). Until the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1804, the runner-up in a Presidential election became the Vice President.

Electoral College votes are cast by individual states by a group of electors, each elector casts one electoral college vote. In modern times, with electors usually committed to vote for a party candidate in advance, electors that vote against the popular vote in their state are called faithless electors, and occurrences are rare. State law regulates how states cast their electoral college votes. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the candidate that wins the most votes in the state receives all its electoral college votes (a "winner takes all" system). From 1969 in Maine, and from 1991 in Nebraska, two electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election, and the rest (two in Maine, three in Nebraska) go to the highest vote-winner in each of the state's congressional districts.

This Presidential campaign logo is typical, in that both the name of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential candidate (the "running mate") are stated. They are elected on the same ticket.
This Presidential campaign logo is typical, in that both the name of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential candidate (the "running mate") are stated. They are elected on the same ticket.

Incumbent Presidents and challengers usually seek to have a "balanced ticket" (it refers to the fact that the President and the Vice President are elected together). Usually, there is some kind of balance, for example geographical, ideological, or in terms of (especially federal) government experience. The nominated Vice Presidential candidate is called the "running mate". Although incumbent Presidents can be challenged in the primaries, none have lost their parties nomination in recent times. The last incumbent President to not seek a second term was Lyndon B. Johnson, who stepped down after serving the remainder of John F. Kennedy's term and another full term (he was eligible for another term).

The electoral college has long been criticized, for several reasons. It has been criticized for being undemocratic by definition, since through it the President is elected indirectly rather than a direct system of election. Another criticism is that it creates inequality between voters in different states during the presidential election. Usually, only voters in swing states determine the outcome of the election and as a result, it is claimed that the vast majority of Americans, who live in non-competitive states, are largely ignored by political campaigns. If the electoral college were abolished and if the whole country were treated as one district for Presidential elections, then the result would not depend on crucial swing states. It also creates inequality in that the populations of very small states, which have a minimum of 3 Electoral college votes, are overrepresented compared with voters from larger states. For example, Wyoming has a population of 493,782 and 3 EC votes, 164,594 people per EC vote. California has a population of 33,871,648 and 55 EC votes, 615,848 people per EC vote. Abolishing the college and replacing it with a national direct system would also prevent a candidate from receiving fewer votes nationwide than their opponent, but still winning more electoral votes, which last occurred in the 2000 Presidential election. Also, the electoral college discriminates against candidates who do not have support concentrated in several states. In 1992, Ross Perot won 18.9% of the national vote, but received no electoral college votes. The electoral college would require a constitutional amendment to be abolished, and since three-quarters of state legislatures would be required to ratify an amendment that would effectively redistribute voting power from many small states to numerically fewer large states, it is thought that an amendment would fail.

U.S. presidential elections

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1800–1849: 1800 | 1804 | 1808 | 1812 | 1816 | 1820 | 1824 | 1828 | 1832 | 1836 | 1840 | 1844 | 1848
1850–1899: 1852 | 1856 | 1860 | 1864 | 1868 | 1872 | 1876 | 1880 | 1884 | 1888 | 1892 | 1896
1900–1949: 1900 | 1904 | 1908 | 1912 | 1916 | 1920 | 1924 | 1928 | 1932 | 1936 | 1940 | 1944 | 1948
1950–1999: 1952 | 1956 | 1960 | 1964 | 1968 | 1972 | 1976 | 1980 | 1984 | 1988 | 1992 | 1996
2000–2049: 2000 | 2004 | 2008

Congressional elections

Elections to Congress take place every two years. Congress has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 435 members, elected for a two year term in single-seat constituencies. The Senate has 100 members, elected for a six year term in dual-seat constituencies (two from each state) with one-third being renewed every two years. Until the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, Senators were elected by state legislatures, not the electorate of states.

Critics point out that the division of the country into congressional districts tends to eliminate voter choice, in many cases creating areas in which races are uncontested or uncompetitive. Redistricting of Congressional districts is done every ten years by commissions, which are often controlled by the majority party in a state legislature. As a result, much redistricting is partisan and reduces the number of competitive districts. According to The Economist, "if democracy means multi-party competition at the grass roots, America is not a full democracy in elections to the House of Representatives... More than nine in ten Americans live in districts that are, in practice, one-party monopolies." Source. Much of the reason for this is partisan gerrymandering which is allowed to occur by state law in virtually every state.

Senate elections
U.S. Senate elections

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House elections
A chart of party balance in the House
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A chart of party balance in the House

U.S. House elections are general elections to the United States House of Representatives that occur every two years on the first Tuesday after November 1 in even years. House elections are first-past-the-post elections that elect a Representative from each of (currently) 435 House districts which cover the United States. Special House elections can occur between if a member dies or resigns during a term.

House elections are usually, but not always, correlated with presidential elections. Typically, when a House election occurs in the same year as a presidential election, the party of the presidential winner will gain seats. On the other hand, there is a historical pattern that the incumbent president's party loses seats in elections that are held in the middle of a presidential term. This may be because the President's popularity has slipped since election, or because the President's popularity encouraged supporters to come out to vote for him in the presidential election, but these supporters are less likely to vote when the President is not up for election.

As the redistricting commissions of states are often partisan, districts are often drawn which benefit incumbents. An increasing trend has been for incumbents to have an overwhelming advantage in House elections, and since the 1994 election, an unusually low number of seats has changed hands in each election. Due to gerrymandering, fewer than 10% of all House seats are contested in each election cycle. The fact that over 90% of House members are guaranteed reelection every two years, due to lack of electoral competition, has been criticized by those who disapprove of the US lecturing the rest of the world on democracy. The legal gerrymandering of the House, combined with the institutionalized gerrymandering of the Senate and the Electoral College, have been criticized as being antithetical to democracy and representative government.

U.S. House elections

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State elections

State law and state constitutions, controlled by state legislatures regulate elections at a state level and local level. Various officials at state level are elected. Since the separation of powers applies to states as well as the federal government, state legislatures and the executive (the governor) are elected separately. Governors and Lieutenant governor are elected in all states, in some states on a joint ticket and in some states separately, some separately in different electoral cycles. The governors of the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are also elected. In some states, executive positions such as Attorney General and Secretary of State are also elected offices. All members of state legislatures are elected, state senators and state representatives/assembly members. Nebraska's legislature is unicameral, so only senators are elected. In some states, members of the state supreme court and other members of the state judiciary are elected. Proposals to amend the state constitution are also placed on the ballot in some states.

Local elections

At local level, by county or city several positions are usually filled by election. The extent to which offices are elected vary from county to county. Examples of elected local positions include sheriffs and school boards at county level and mayors at city level.

Features of the election system

Party systems

The United States has a very strong two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties. It is extremely difficult for anyone to achieve electoral success under a "third party". As a general rule, the Republican and Democratic parties are too well established to be seriously challenged in federal and state electoral politics. In the federal government, the sole exceptions are Bernard Sanders, the independent socialist US Representative of Vermont and Senator James Jeffords (elected as a Republican) also from Vermont, an independent from 2001.

Ballot access

Main article Ballot Access in the United States of America

Ballot access refers to the laws which regulate under what conditions access is granted for a candidate or political party to appear on voters' ballots. Each State has its own ballot access laws to determine who may appear on ballots and who may not. According to Article I, Section 4, of the United States Constitution, the authority to regulate the time, place, and manner of federal elections is up to each State, unless Congress legislates otherwise. Depending on the office and the state, it may be possible for a voter to cast a write-in vote for a candidate whose name does not appear on the ballot; but, it is extremely rare for such a candidate to win office.

Campaign finance

Main article: Campaign finance in the United States

The funding of electoral campaigns has always been a controversial issue in American politics. Infringement of free speech (Amendment 1 is an argument against restrictions on campaign contributions, allegations of corruption arising from unlimited contributions is an argument for the other side. Private funds are a major source of finance, from individuals and organizations. The first attempt to regulate campaign finance by legislation was in 1867, but major legislation, with the intention to widely enforce, on campaign finance was not introduced until the 1970s.

Money contributed to campaigns can be classified into "hard money" and "soft money". Hard money is money contributed directed to a campaign, by and individual or organization. Soft money is money from an individual or organization not contributed to a campaign, but spent in candidate specific advertising or other efforts that benefits that candidate by groups supporting the candidate, but legally not coordinated by the official campaign.

The Federal Election Campaign Act 1971 required candidates to disclose sources of campaign contributions and campaign expenditure. It was amended in 1974 to legally limit campaign contributions. It banned direct contributing to campaigns by corporations and trade unions and limited individual donations to $1,000 per campaign. It introduced public funding for Presidential primaries and elections. The Act also placed limits of $5,000 per campaign on PACs (political action committees). The limits on individual contributions and prohibition of direct corporate or labor union campaigns led to a huge increase in the number of PACs. Today many labor unions and corporations have their own PACs, and over 4,000 in total exist. The 1974 amendment also specified a Federal Election Commission, created in 1975 to administer and enforce campaign finance law. Various other provisions were also included, such as a ban on contributions or expenditures by foreign nationals (incorporated from the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) 1966).

The case of Buckley v. Valeo (1976) challenged the Act. Most provisions were upheld, but the court found that the mandatory spending limit imposed was unconstitutional, as was the limit placed on campaign spending from the candidate's personal fortune and the provision that limited independent expenditures by individuals and organizations supporting but not officially linked to a campaign. The effect of the second decision was to allow candidates such as Ross Perot and Steve Forbes to spend enormous amounts of their own money in their own campaigns. The effect of the second decision was to allow the culture of "soft money" to develop.

A 1979 amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act allowed political parties to spend without limit on get-out-the-vote and voter registration activities conducted primarily for a presidential candidate. Later, they were permitted by FECA to use "soft money", unregulated, unlimited contributions to fund this effort. Increasingly, the money began to be spent on issue advertising, candidate specific advertising that was being funded mostly by soft money. The amount of soft money used increased from election to election, reaching a combined total between Republicans and Democrats of in 2000.

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 banned local and national parties from spending soft money" and banned national party committees from accepting or spending soft money. It increased the limit of contributions by individuals from $1,000 to $2,000. It banned corporations or labor unions from funding issue advertising directly, and banned the use of corporate or labor money for advertisements that mention a federal candidate within 60 days of a general election or 30 days of a primary. The constitutionality of the bill was challenged by a group of plaintiffs led by Senate Majority Whip Mitch McConnell. In December 2003, the Supreme Court upheld most provisions of the legislation. See McConnell v. FEC.

A large number of "527 groups" were active for the first time in the 2004 election. These groups receive donations from individuals and groups and then spend the money on issue advocacy, such as the anti-Kerry ads by Swift Boat Veterans For Truth. This is a new form of soft money, and not surprisingly is controversial. Many 527 groups have close links with the Democratic or Republican Parties, even though legally they cannot coordinate their activities with them. John McCain, one of the Senators behind the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, and President Bush have both declared a desire to ban 527s.

Primaries and caucuses

In federal elections, candidates are chosen not by party officials, but by primary elections (abbreviated to "primaries") and caucuses.

A primary election is an election in which registered voters in a jurisdiction (nominating primary) select a political party's candidate for a later election. There are various types of primary: either the whole electorate is eligible, and voter choose one party's primary at the polling booth (an "open primary"), or only independent voters can choose a party's primary at the polling booth or only registered members of the party are allowed to vote ("closed primary"). The "blanket primary", when voters could vote for all party's primaries on the same ballot was struck down by the United States Supreme Court as violating the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of assembly in the case California Democratic Party v. Jones. Primaries are also used to select candidates at state level, for example in gubernatorial elections.

Caucuses also nominate candidates by election, but they are very different from primaries. Caucuses are meetings that occur at precincts and involve discussion of each party's platform and issues such as voter turnout in addition to voting. Eleven states: Iowa, New Mexico, North Dakota, Maine, Nevada, Hawaii, Minnesota, Kansas, Alaska, Wyoming, Colorado and the District of Columbia use caucuses.

The "primary season" (it refers to primaries and caucuses) in Presidential elections lasts from the Iowa caucus in January to the last primary, which was the New Jersey primary and Montana primary on 8 June in 2004. "Front-loading", when too many primaries taken place in the opening weeks of the season can be a problem, reducing the number of realistic candidates, as fund-raisers and donors quickly abandon those they see as untenable. However, it is not the case that the successful candidate is always the candidate that does the best in the early primaries. There is also a period dubbed the "invisible primary" that takes place before the primary season, when candidates attempt to solicit media coverage and funding well before the real primary season begins.

See also

External links

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