Spanish missions in California
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This article is part of the Spanish missions in California series. |
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Mission Revival Style architecture |
California mission clash of cultures |
The Spanish Missions in California (more simply referred to as the "California Missions") comprise a series of religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, to spread the Christian doctrine among the local Native Americans, but with the added benefit of giving Spain a toehold in the frontier land. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, and industry into the California region. In addition to the presidio (royal fort) and pueblo (town), the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories.
Since 1493, the Kingdom of Spain had maintained a number of missions throughout Nueva España (New Spain, consisting of Mexico and portions of what today are the Southwestern United States) in order to facilitate colonization of these lands. In this context, the term "California" is used to refer to the territory that comprises Alta California (chiefly the current U.S. state of California) and the Mexican states of Baja California and Baja California Sur. It was not until the threat of invasion by Tsarist Russia in 1765, however, that the King felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to explore the Pacific Northwest, but by 1819 chose to limit its "reach" to Northern California due to the costs involved in sustaining such remote outposts.
Contents |
The missions
Site selection and layout
- Main article: Architecture of the California missions
Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was literally months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, and the cargo ships of the day were too small to carry more than a few months’ rations in their holds. In order to sustain a mission, the padres required the help of colonists or converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the Fathers to employ simple building materials and methods in the construction of mission structures.
Although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of "priestly whim." The founding of a mission followed longstanding rules and procedures; the paperwork involved required months, sometimes years of correspondence, and demanded the attention of virtually every level of the bureaucracy. Once empowered to erect a mission in a given area, the men assigned to it chose a specific site that featured a good water supply, plenty of wood for fires and building material, and ample fields for grazing herds and raising crops. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes, roofed with thatch or reeds (cañas). It was these simple huts that would ultimately give way to the stone and adobe buildings which exist to this day.
The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church (iglesia). The majority of mission sanctuaries were oriented on a roughly east-west axis to take the best advantage of the sun's position for interior illumination; the exact alignment depended on the geographic features of the particular site. Once the spot for the church was selected, its position would be marked and the remainder of the mission complex would be laid out. The workshops, kitchens, living quarters, storerooms, and other ancillary chambers were usually grouped in the form of a quadrangle, inside which religious celebrations and other festive events often took place. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the Fathers had no surveying instruments at their disposal and simply measured off all dimensions by foot.
Missions in present–day Alta California (U.S.)
The 21 northern missions were established along California's El Camino Real (Spanish for The King's Highway, christened in honor of King Charles III), much of which is now U.S. Highway 101. The mission planning was begun under the leadership of Fray Junípero Serra, O.F.M. in 1769 (who in 1767, along with his fellow priests, had taken control over a group of missions in Baja California previously administered by the Jesuits). Work was concluded in 1823, although Serra had died in 1784. Father Fermín Francisco de Lasuén took up Serra's work and established nine more mission sites from 1786 through 1798; others established the last three compounds, along with at least five asistencia, or "sub-missions".
The missions are collectively the best-known historic element of the coastal regions of California. Seven of the twenty-one missions are designated National Historic Landmarks, fourteen are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and all are designated as California Historical Landmarks for their historic, architectural, and archaeological significance. The popularity of the California Missions stems largely from Helen Hunt Jackson's 1884 novel Ramona and the subsequent efforts of Charles Lummis, William Randolph Hearst, and other members of the Landmarks Club of Los Angeles to restore the missions in the early 20th century. The missions have a prominent place in California's historic consciousness, and a steady stream of tourists from all over the world visit them.
Today, the California Missions exist in varying degrees of architectural integrity and structural soundness. The most common extant features at the mission grounds include the church building and an ancillary convento (convent) wing. In some cases (in San Rafael, Santa Cruz, and Soledad, for example) the current buildings are replicas constructed on or near the original site. Other mission compounds remain relatively intact and true to their original, Mission Era construction. A notable example of an intact complex is the now-threatened Mission San Miguel Arcángel: its chapel retains the original interior murals created by [[Salinan] Indians under the direction of Esteban Munras, a Spanish artist. This structure was closed to the public in 2003 due to severe damage from the San Simeon Earthquake.
Many missions have preserved (or in some cases reconstructed) historic features in addition to chapel buildings. Mission San Luís Rey in Oceanside has a well-preserved lavanderia (washing area) with Indian-made gargoyles for water spouts and clear depressions where native women washed clothes on the bricks. Mission San Antonio de Padua near Jolon has more than 100 acres (0.4 km²) of archeological and built features, including sawpits, reservoirs, and the foundations of the soldiers' barracks, threshing room, and married Indian convert housing.
Military Districts
Four presidios, strategically placed along the California coast, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California. Each of these posts functioned as a base of military operations for a specific region, organized as follows:
- El Presidio de San Diego founded in 1769, responsible for the defense of all installations in the First Military District;
- El Presidio de Santa Bárbara founded in 1782, responsible for the defense of all installations in the Second Military District;
- El Presidio de Monterey founded in 1770, responsible for the defense of all installations in the Third Military District; and
- El Presidio de San Francisco founded in 1776, responsible for the defense of all installations in the Fourth Military District.
El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks, was established in 1836 by Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo (the "Commanclate-General of the Northern Frontier of Alta California") as a part of Mexico's strategy to halt Russian incursions into the region.
The missions themselves were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback along the 600–mile (966–kilometer) long El Camino Real (Spanish for "The Kings Highway"), also known as the California Mission Trail. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled mustard seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers.
In geographical order, north to south
- Mission San Francisco Solano, in Sonoma
- Mission San Rafael Arcángel, in San Rafael
- Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores), in San Francisco
- Mission San José, in Fremont
- Mission Santa Clara de Asís, in Santa Clara
- Mission Santa Cruz, in Santa Cruz
- Mission San Juan Bautista, in San Juan Bautista
- Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo, south of Carmel
- Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, south of Soledad
- Mission San Antonio de Padua, northwest of Jolon
- Mission San Miguel Arcángel, north of Paso Robles
- Santa Margarita Asistencia, in Santa Margarita
- Mission San Luís Obispo de Tolosa, in San Luis Obispo
- Mission La Purísima Concepción, northeast of Lompoc
- Mission Santa Inés, in Solvang
- Mission Santa Bárbara, in Santa Barbara
- Mission San Buenaventura, in Ventura
- Mission San Fernando Rey de España, in San Fernando
- San Bernadino Asistencia, in Redlands
- Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, in San Gabriel
- Mission San Juan Capistrano, in San Juan Capistrano
- Las Flores Asistencia (Las Flores Estancia), in Camp Pendleton
- Santa Ysabel Asistencia, in Santa Ysabel
- Mission San Antonio de Pala (Pala Asistencia), in eastern San Diego County
- Mission San Luís Rey de Francia, in Oceanside
- Mission San Diego de Alcalá, in San Diego
In chronological order
Franciscan Establishments (1769–1823)
- Mission San Diego de Alcalá founded in 1769
- Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo founded in 1770
- Mission San Antonio de Padua founded in 1771
- Mission San Gabriel Arcángel founded in 1771
- Mission San Luís Obispo de Tolosa founded in 1772
- Mission San Francisco de Asís (Mission Dolores) founded in 1776
- Mission San Juan Capistrano founded in 1776
- Mission Santa Clara de Asís founded in 1777
- Mission San Buenaventura founded in 1782
- Mission Santa Bárbara founded in 1786
- Mission La Purísima Concepción founded in 1787
- Santa Margarita Asistencia founded in 1787
- Mission Santa Cruz founded in 1791
- Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad founded in 1791
- Mission San José founded in 1797
- Mission San Juan Bautista founded in 1797
- Mission San Miguel Arcángel founded in 1797
- Mission San Fernando Rey de España founded in 1797
- Mission San Luís Rey de Francia founded in 1798
- Mission Santa Inés founded in 1804
- Mission San Antonio de Pala (Pala Asistencia) founded in 1816
- Mission San Rafael Arcángel founded in 1817 – originally planned as an asistencia to Mission San Francisco de Asís
- Santa Ysabel Asistencia founded in 1818
- San Bernadino Asistencia founded in 1819
- Mission San Francisco Solano founded in 1823 – originally planned as an asistencia to Mission San Rafael Arcángel
- Las Flores Asistencia (Las Flores Estancia) founded in 1823
Missions in present–day Baja California (Mexico)
Fortún Jiménez de Bertadoña discovered the Baja California Peninsula in early 1534. However, it was Hernán Cortés who recognized the peninsula as the "Island of California" in May 1535, and is therefore officially credited with the discovery.
In January, 1683 the Spanish government chartered an expedition consisting of three ships to transport a contingent of 200 men to the southern tip of Baja California. Under the command of the governor of Sinaloa, Isidoro de Atondo y Antillon, and accompanied by Jesuit priest Eusebio Francisco Kino, the ships made landfall in La Paz. The landing party was eventually forced to abandon its initial settlement at San Bruno due to the hostile response on the part of the natives.
In 1695, the missionaries attempted to establish a settlement near Loreto but again failed. Father Kino and Atondo y Antillon returned to the Mexican mainland, where Kino went on to establish several missions in the northwest. A Jesuit priest named Juan María de Salvatierra eventually managed to establish the first permanent Spanish settlement, the Misión Nuestra Senora de Loreto Conchó. Founded on October 19, 1697 the Mission went on to become the religious and administrative capital of Baja California. From there, other Jesuits went out to establish other settlements throughout the peninsula, founding a total of 18 missions and 2 visitas ("visiting missions" or "country chapels") over the next seven decades.
Unlike the mainland settlements that were designed to be self-sustaining enterprises, the remote and harsh conditions on the peninsula made it all but impossible to build and maintain these missions without ongoing assistance from the mainland. Supply lines from across the Sea of Cortez in the Port of Guaymas played a crucial role in keeping the Baja mission system intact. Along with religion, the Europeans brought with them diseases that the indigenous peoples had never been exposed to, and consequently had no immunity against. By 1767, epidemics of measles, plague, smallpox, typhus, and venereal diseases had decimated the native population. Out of an initial population of as many as 50,000, only some are though to have 5,000 survived.
It was rumored that the Jesuit priests had amassed a fortune on the peninsula and were becoming very powerful. On February 3, 1768 King Carlos III ordered the Jesuits forcibly expelled from "New Spain" and returned to the home country. The Franciscans, under the leadership of Fray Junípero Serra, took charge of the missions and closed or consolidated several of the existing installations. They also founded Misión San Fernando Rey de España de Velicatá (the only Franciscan mission in all of Baja California) and the nearby Visita de la Presentación in 1769. Then, along with Governor Gaspar de Portolà, Serra was ordered by the Spanish government to travel north and establish a series of mission sites in Alta (Upper) California.
Representatives of the Dominican order arrived in 1772, and by 1800 had established 9 more missions in northern Baja, all the while continuing with the administration of the former the Jesuit missions. The peninsula was divided into two separate entities in 1804, with the southern one having the seat of government established in the Port of Loreto. In 1810 Mexico sought to end Spanish colonial rule, gaining her independence in 1821, after which Mexican President Guadalupe Victoria named Lt. Col. José María Echeandía governor of Baja California Sur and divided it in four separate municipios municipalities.
The capital was moved to La Paz in 1830 after Loreto was partially destroyed by heavy rains. In 1832, after Baja was designated as a federal territory, the governor formally put an end to the mission system by converting the missions into parish churches.
In geographical order, north to south
Baja California (Norte)
- Misión San Fernando Rey de España de Velicatá
- Misión Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe del Norte
- Misión El Descanso (Misión San Miguel la Nueva), near Ensenada
- Misión Santa Catarina Virgen y Mártir
- Misión San Pedro Mártir de Verona
- Misión Santo Tomás de Aquino
- Misión San Miguel Arcángel de la Frontera
- Misión San Vicente Ferrer
- Misión Santo Domingo de la Frontera, near Colonia Vicente Guerrero
- Misión Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario de Viñacado, near the town of El Rosario
- Misión Santa María de los Ángeles, near Cataviña
- Misión San Francisco Borja
- Misión Santa Gertrudis
Baja California Sur
- Misión San Ignacio Kadakaamán [1], in San Ignacio
- Misión Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Huasinapi [2], in Guadalupe
- Misión Santa Rosalía de Mulegé [3], in Mulegé
- Misión La Purísima Concepción de Cadegomó [4], in La Purísima
- Misión San José de Comondú [5], north of Loreto
- Misión Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó [6], in Loreto
- Misión San Francisco Javier de Viggé-Biaundó [7], in San Javier
- Misión San Juan Bautista Malibat [8] (Misión Liguí), in Liguí
- Misión San Luis Gonzaga Chiriyaqui [9], northwest of La Paz
- Misión Nuestra Señora de los Dolores del Sur Chillá [10], between Loreto and La Paz
- Misión de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de La Paz Airapí [11], in La Paz
- Misión Santa Rosa de las Palmas [12] (Misión Todos Santos), in Todos Santos
- Misión Santiago de Los Coras [13], in Santiago
- Misión Estero de las Palmas de San José del Cabo Añuití [14], in San José del Cabo
- Misión San Bruno in San Bruno
In chronological order
Jesuit Establishments (1683–1767)
- Misión San Bruno founded in 1683
- Misión Nuestra Senora de Loreto Conchó founded in 1697
- Visita de San Juan Bautista Londó founded in 1699
- Misión San Francisco Javier de Viggé-Biaundó founded in 1699
- Misión San Juan Bautista Malibat (Misión Liguí) founded in 1705
- Misión Santa Rosalía de Mulegé founded in 1705
- Misión San Jose de Comondú founded in 1708
- Misión La Purísima Concepción de Cadegomó founded in 1720
- Misión de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de La Paz Airapí founded in 1720
- Misión Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Huasinapi founded in 1720
- Misión Santiago de Los Coras founded in 1721
- Misión Nuestra Señora de los Dolores del Sur Chillá founded in 1721
- Misión San Ignacio Kadakaamán founded in 1728
- Misión Estero de las Palmas de San José del Cabo Añuití founded in 1730
- Misión Santa Rosa de las Palmas (Misión Todos Santos) founded in 1733
- Misión San Luis Gonzaga Chiriyaqui founded in 1740
- Misión Santa Gertrudis founded in 1752
- Misión San Francisco Borja founded in 1762
- Visita de Calamajué founded in 1766
- Misión Santa María de los Ángeles founded in 1767
Franciscan Establishments (1768–1773)
- Misión San Fernando Rey de España de Velicatá founded in 1769
- Visita de la Presentación founded in 1769
Dominican Establishments (1774–1834)
- Misión Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario de Viñacado founded in 1774
- Visita de San José de Magdalena founded in 1774
- Misión Santo Domingo de la Frontera founded in 1775
- Misión San Vicente Ferrer founded in 1780
- Misión San Miguel Arcángel de la Frontera founded in 1797
- Misión Santo Tomás de Aquino founded in 1791
- Misión San Pedro Mártir de Verona founded in 1794
- Misión Santa Catarina Virgen y Mártir founded in 1797
- Visita de San Telmo founded in 1798
- Misión El Descanso (Misión San Miguel la Nueva) founded in 1817
- Misión Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe del Norte founded in 1834
References
- Baer, K. (1958) Architecture of the California Missions, University of California Press, Los Angeles, CA
- Carillo, Fr. J. M. (1967) The Story of Mission San Antonio de Padua, Paisano Press, Inc., Balboa Island, CA
- Camphouse, M. (1974) Guidebook to the Missions of California, Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA. ISBN 0378037927
- Crump, S. (1975) California's Spanish Missions: Their Yesterdays and Todays, Trans-Anglo Books, Del Mar, CA. ISBN 0870460285
- Drager, K., and Fracchia, C. (1997) The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood, Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, OR. ISBN 1558683127
- Geiger, M., O.F.M. (1969) Franciscan Missionaries in Hispanic California, 1769-1848: A Biographical Dictionary, Huntington Library, San Marino, CA
- Johnson, P., ed. (1964) The California Missions, Lane Book Company, Menlo Park, CA
- Moorhead, Max L. (1991) The Presidio: Bastion Of The Spanish Borderlands, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK. ISBN 0806123176
- Rawls, J. and Bean, W. (1997) California: An Interpretive History, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. ISBN 0070524114
- Robinson, W. (1953) Panorama: A Picture History of Southern California, Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA
- Wright, R. (1950) California's Missions, Hubert A. and Martha H. Lowman, Arroyo Grande, CA
- Young, S., and Levick, M. (1988) The Missions of California, Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, CA. ISBN 0811819388
See also
- Alamo Mission in San Antonio
- California 4th Grade Mission Project
- History of California
- History of Christian Missions
- Missionary
- Mission Revival Style architecture
- Spanish colonization of the Americas
- Spanish missions in Mexico
- Spanish missions in Trinidad
External links
- www.ca-missions.org — The official website of the California Mission Studies Association, a good source of accurate, peer-reviewed information on Mission Era history with an extensive links page.
- www.missionsofcalifornia.org — The official website of the California Missions Foundation (a secular, nonprofit organization dedicated to preserving the California missions and their associated art and artifacts for the public benefit) includes contact information for each mission, directions, and a brief accounting of their preservation needs.
- Almanac: California Missions
- Animated Map of Mission Formation in Alta California
- California Highways - Trails and Roads: El Camino Real
- California Historical Society official website
- California Missions
- California Missions article at The Catholic Encyclopedia
- The California Missions
- California Missions: A Virtual Tour
- Early California History: The Missions
- Missions of Baja California Norte and Sur
- The Missions of the California's and Beyond
- Mission Tour Home
- The Old Franciscan Missions of California eText at Project Gutenberg
- The San Diego Founders Trail official website
- National Register of Historic Places official website
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