Turkish War of Independence

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Jump to: navigation, search
History of Republic of Turkey Series
War of Independence Single Party Period Multi-Party Period Timeline Atatürk

The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı) is a part of the History of Turkey that spans from the defeat of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies in World War I to the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923.

Contents

The Precursors

The development of the Turkish national resistance movement from the regional congresses of 1918-1919 to the victory of the declaration of Republic is full of very interesting events. It has to be mentioned that this movement was performed against every known nation at that time.

Even the supporters of the Turkish national uprising, such as Bolsheviks, were also supporting the other sides during the conflict. The military actions show a continuum with undeniable power of Mustafa Kemal during this time. As a military leader, he was unchallenged. However on the political front it was totally different. There were conflicting sides which had conflicting visions. Only one source was binding all these people together, it was the Entente powers which wanted to eliminate them from the places that they saw as their homeland.

The history is written by the winners, so the story of this national upsring will have the sections aligned with the Mustafa Kemal's movement and other movements will be explained along his, if not from his view.

It was not a surprise for Entente that resistance was going to appear from the first days of the occupation. Entente's first action was to control the ammunition and its distribution. In reaction of this, many Ottoman officials organized secret Outpost Societies (Karakol Cemiyeti) shortly after and used their positions to thwart the Allied demands, both passive and active resistance. Small boats from the capital sent out into the Aegean and the Black Sea. The second demand was disbanding the small units either to a bigger more controllable or totally sending them home. The first resistance movements in Thrace and Istanbul were organized within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Before the leading officers of the Ottoman Army such as Mustafa Kemal, Kãzim Karabekir, and others returned to Istanbul from their last posts. In the face of their situation, the Sultan and government bribe them with important positions in the areas remaining under so called direct Ottoman authority. Places that were mainly occupied by the armies of Allies. Even today, the reason of these assignments was discussed if they were to support the national movement or to keep what little is left to them. The most prominent idea given against for sultan’s decision was by assigning these officers out of Istanbul to already occupied places, he tried to minimize the effectiveness of these soldiers. At those days the look from the Istanbul was without the organized army, allies can not be defeated. Many Istanbul officials also did all they could to conceal the details of the movements that spread through the country side from the occupation authorities.

Initial Organization (May 1919-March 1920)

Atatürk needed national support. His notoriety from his position gave him some credentials. It was not enough to mobilize anything. Besides his task was to disarm the army. He had to secure some relations to gain more movement. He met with Rauf Orbay, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, and Refet Bele on June 21 1919.

Before Amasya Agrement, Atatürk met with a Bolshevik delegation headed by Colonel Semen Budenny. Bolsheviks wanted to control expansionist goals of Armenian Republic in the Black Sea. Turkey could also be a buffer, especially if it turns into communistic ideology. Atatürk official response was "Such questions had to be posponed until Turkish independance was achieved." Having this support was important for the national movement.

Amasya Agrement

Amasya Agrement is important in many respects. It is the first call for the national movement against the occupation. It talks about national independance, based on provinces, not race. Even in this declaration we see the roots of what constitutes the "Turk" as a political term. There is no distinction or reference to race or religion. The message read as this.

  • The unity of the fatherland and national independence are in danger.
  • The Istanbul goverment is unable to carry out its responsibilities.
  • It is only through the nation's effort and determination that national independance will be won.
  • It is necessary to establish a national committee, free from all external influences and control, that will review the national situation and make known to to the world the peoples desires for justice.
  • It has been decided to hold immediately a National Congress in Savas, the most secure place in Anatolia.
  • Three representatives from each province should be sent immediately to the Sivas Congress.
  • To be prepared for every eventuality, this subject should be kept a national secret.

This agreement was signed by Atatürk, Rauf Orbay, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Refet Bele and later Kazim Karabekir added his signature.

Erzurum Congress

Balıkesir Congress

Alaşehir Congress

Sivas Congress

Ataturk with Refet-Rauf-Bekir and representatives
Enlarge
Ataturk with Refet-Rauf-Bekir and representatives


Amasya Protocole

Jurisdictional Conflict (March 1920 - March 1922)

The new government in İstanbul hoping to dissolute the national movement passed a fatwa from Şeyhülislam (legal opinion). Fetwa stated that true believer should not go along with the nationalist (rebels) movement. Along with this religious decree, government prosecuted Mustafa Kemal and prominent nationalist to death in absentia. At the same time, Ankara müftü in defense of national movement gave a counter acting fetwa declaring İstanbul is under control of Entente and the Ferit Paşa government. In this text, nationalist movement's goal was stated as freeing the Sultan and Caliphate from the enemies.

Entence units & rail road
Enlarge
Entence units & rail road

The British in İstanbul who were looking skeptical to all these movements decided to use irregular power to counter act the nationalist movement, which was mainly an irregular movement at that time. These irregular national forces were distributed around the Turkey, so İstanbul dispatched many small counter forces. Ahmet Anzavur and his forces, or will be his forces with the help of British army, was the biggest opposing force of all. Besides the irregulars, under the name of Kuva-yi İnzibatiye (Disciplinaru forces) another army was collected. It was about 2000 strong force. It was initially deployed in the İzmit.

Grand National Assembly

Ankara the Parlement Building
Enlarge
Ankara the Parlement Building


Breaking the links

Organizing an Army

London Conferance

The Armistice of Mudanya

Stage for Peace (March 1922- April 1923)

Conferance and Treaty of Lusanne

The Republic

Theatres of the War

East-(Armenian & Georgia)

The border between East Armenia was defined with Brest-Litovsk and Batum treaties. In 1919 it was obvious to nationalists that east boarder was not goint to stay as it is. There was Armenian Republic, Georgia, and Bolsheviks against the nationalists.

One of the most important fights had been in this boarder. Even though there is a pressing Greek danger on the west, the very early onset of national army was the proof of this. Armenia was not content on the boarders set in 1919 with Ottoman Empire. There was also a movement of Armenians from southeast with the French support. Armenian Republic backing this movement on the ground could gain much more land. To link these sources Armenian Republic needed to move more deep and south, like Van, but first Erzurum. The Armenian diasporas was negotiating with Entente powers and the Armenian movements were being used as an argument to draw the boarder between Ottoman Empire and Armenian Republic. Also, Armenian Republic has to balance its own expansionist movements to Bolseviks. If Armenian Republic can connect on the land with the French supported southeast Armenian powers that could give much seek resources to balance the Bolshevik expansionist movements. It is also possible to claim that if Armenian Republic could have content with the boundaries gained in 1919, most likely It could gave more resistance to Bolshevik conquest, both internally and internationally. The political dynamics of how Armenian Republic ceased to exists is covered under the Armenian national movements.

The Armenian raids on the boarder began in May 1920. The stage of the east campaign is developed through two reports (30 May to 4 June 1920) outlining the situation from Kâzım Karabekir Paşa. He was detailing the activities of the Armenian Republic's activities and advising how to shape the sources at the eastern borders, especially Erzurum. Before the stage was set by Kâzım Karabekir Paşa on the east border, Russion government send a message to settle not only East Armenian but also Iranian border through diplomacy under Russian control. The Soviet support was absolutely vital for the nationalist movement. Bakir Sami Bey was assigned for the talks. Bolsheviks demanded Van and Bitlis to Armenia. This was unacceptable to nationalists. Nationalists were also faced another dilemma, their hesitation to move forces to prevent the Armenian raids was causing a growing unsettlement among the Turks, but they have to balance the Greek threat and needed the diplomatic connections.

Before more diplomatic exchanges can be done, to show a sign of power on the discussion table, Armenia moved its forces to Oltu. This was fallowed with 25 July Artvin was occupied by Gorgian forces. The response to these moves was set by Kâzım Karabekir Paşa through moving the Turkish forces towards the eastern border, on 28 Septamber 1920. The fighting was halted for a month after Sarıkamış. The nationalist moved more support and gave another chance to talks. When the second movement began on 27 December, it finallay stoped by Armenians through Alexandropol (Gümrü) agreement. This agreement has to be renewed shortly after. The nationalist and socialist Dashnakzoutium goverment of Armenia was toppled by the Bolsheviks. Armenia Republic was not eliminated from the map by the Turkish nationalist which could have easily moved deep into Erivan, but Bolseviks gave the last kiss.

For more details on this topic, see Treaty of Alexandropol.

The arms left by the defeated Armenian forces were sent to the west to develop the resistance to the Greeks. It should be noted that, like some Armenian historians claim Turkish movement against the Armenian forces was not coordinated with Bolsheviks. Bolsheviks conquered Azerbaijan while the Armenians were fighting with Turks. It is only after the peace agreement was reached that they moved into Erivan.

Eastern Front Battles
Name Land/Sea Guest(1) General Home (2) General Date Side Treaty
Oltu Armenian Republic National Forces 25 July 1920 1
Artvin Gorgia National Forces 25 July 1920 1
Sarıkamış Armenian Republic National Forces 29 September 1920 2
Kars Armenian Republic National Forces Albay Halit Bey (Karsıalan) 30 October 1920 2
Gümrü Armenian Republic National Forces 7 November 1920 2 Treaty of Alexandropol

Soon after the bolsheviks and nationalists signed another agreement 16 March 1921. Tnationalists agreed to cede Nachicevan and Batum. In response they received support and gold. For the promised resources nationalist have to wait until the Skarya battle. Bolsheviks was expecting that nationalist could not last long.

For more details on this topic, see Treaty of Kars.

West (Greek-English)

For more details on this topic, see Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922).

The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, which ended the First World War in Asia Minor and divided the Ottoman Empire, assigned all these territories to Greece. Greek troops had already occupied Smyrna and the surroundings in May 1919 under cover of French, British and American ships.

Greek zone of occupation
Enlarge
Greek zone of occupation

In the summer of 1920, the greek army extended its zone of occupation over all western and nort western Asia Minor and over Thrace. They wanted to occupy the İstanbul so that they can have linked the both sides, but Entente powers did not gave permission. The war arose because the western Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, had promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire if Greece entered the war on the Allied side. These included eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, and parts of western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna (current day İzmir), all of which had substantial Greek populations.

In October 1920, with the encouragement of Lloyd George who intended to increase the pressure on the Turkish and Ottoman governments to sign the Treaty of Sevrès, the Greek army advanced east into Anatolia with the intention of defeating the Kemalist forces before they were ready to attack the Greek perimeter at Smyrna. This advancement was begun under the Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos, but soon after the offensive began Venizelos fell from power and was replaced by Dimitrios Gounaris, who appointed inexperienced monarchist officers to senior commands. King Constantine took personal command of the army at Smyrna.

After a Greek defeat on January 11, 1921, allied states proposed to amend the Treaty of Sevrès at a conference in London where both Turkish and Ottoman governments were represented. Although some agreements were reached with Italy, France and Britain, the decisions were defied by the Greeks who initiated another attack on March 27 (Battle of Inonu II), to be resisted and finally defeated by the Kemalist troops on March 30. The unpredictable Turkish victory caused Secretary of War Winston Churchill to withdraw British support to the Greeks.

In June 1921 the strengthened Greek army advanced to the River Sakarya, less than 100 km (62 miles) west of Ankara. Meanwhile, the Turkish government at Ankara appointed Mustafa Kemal as the commander in chief. In August, Kemal counter-attacked, routing the Greeks and cutting off their supply lines at the Battle of the Sakarya (August 23 – September 13, 1921). The Greeks retreated in good order and still hoped to defend their base at Smyrna. They appealed to the Allies for help, but early in 1922 Britain, France and Italy decided that the Treaty of Sèvres could not be enforced and should be revised. Parallel to their decision, with successive treaties, Italian and French troops evacuated their positions.

In March 1922 the Allies proposed a ceasefire, but Kemal answered there could be no settlement while the Greeks remained in Anatolia. In August, after preparations on both sides, the Turks launched a new offensive on August 26, defeating the Greeks at the Battle of Dumlupinar near Afyon (August 30, 1922, celebrated as the Victory Day and a national holiday in Turkey). Shortly after their victory, the Turks captured Izmir (September 9). The city was burned to the ground (by retreating Greeks according to the Turks, or by Turks, according to the Greeks).

Ataturk in Izmir
Enlarge
Ataturk in Izmir

With the borders secured with treaties and agreements at east and south, Kemal was now in a commanding position. The Turks were then able to insist that unconditionally, the Greeks evacuate east Thrace, Imbros and Tenedos as well as Asia Minor, and the Maritza River to be set as the border at Thrace at its pre-1914 position. The majority of the ethnic Greek population of Asia Minor had already fled or been expelled to Greece. Greeks call this the "Asia Minor Disaster".

France, Italy and Britain called Mustafa Kemal to Venice for cease-fire negotiations. In return, Mustafa Kemal demanded negotiations be started at Moudania (Mudanya) on condition that east Thrace be ceded to Turks immediately. Negotiations at Mudanya began on October 3, with the Turkish delegation lead by Ismet Inonu, and the Greeks represented by the Allies. The Mudanya Armistice was concluded on October 11, 1922, with the Allies keeping east Thrace and the Bosporus under occupation, but the Greeks evacuating these areas. The agreement came into force starting October 15.

For more details on this topic, see Armistice of Mudanya.

At the Treaty of Lausanne concluded the Greco-Turkish War, Greece's withdrawal from Anatolia and east Thrace was formalised.

For more details on this topic, see Treaty of Lausanne.
Western Front Battles
Name Land/Sea Guest(1) General Home (2) General Date Side Treaty
First Battle of Inonu Greece National Forces 9-11 January 1921 1
Second Battle of Inonu Greece National Forces March 26, 1921 2
Sakarya Greece National Forces August 23,1921 1
Battle of Dumlupinar Greece National Forces 26 - 30 August 1922 2


South

El cezire

Pontus

Timeline

See also

Personal tools
In other languages